New Beginnings Programme for Divorced and Separating Families

Wolchik, S. A., West, S. G., Sandler, I. N., Tein, J. Y., Coatsworth, D., Lengua, L., ... & Griffin, W. A. (2000). An experimental evaluation of theory-based mother and mother–child programs for children of divorce. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68(5), 843-856.

Available at
https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2000-02835-010

Wolchik, S. A., Sandler, I. N., Millsap, R. E., Plummer, B. A., Greene, S. M., Anderson, E. R., ... & Haine, R. A. (2002). Six-year follow-up of preventive interventions for children of divorce: A randomized controlled trial. Jama, 288(15), 1874-1881.

Available at
https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/195412

Wolchik, S. A., Sandler, I., Tein, J.-Y., Mahrer, N., Millsap, R., Winslow, E., . . . Reed, A. (2013). Fifteen-year follow-up of a randomized trial of a preventive intervention for divorced families: Effects on mental health and substance use outcomes in young adulthood. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 81(4), 660-673.

Available at
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3805366/

Study design and sample

The first study is an RCT. 

This study involved random assignment of mothers and their children to three groups, an intervention for mothers group, a dual intervention group (mother + child), and a control group. 

This study was conducted in the USA, with a sample of mothers with children aged between 9 and 12 years old. The majority of the sample had a Caucasian ethnicity (88%), and 47% of the mothers had completed some college courses

Measures

Child’s coping was measured using Children's Coping Strategies Checklist—Revised and Coping Efficacy Scale (child self-reports). Externalising behaviour was measured using Child Behaviour Checklist (CBCL; parent report), Youth Self Report (child self-report) and Acting-Out subscale of the Teacher-Child Rating Scale (teacher reports). Internalising behaviour problems were measured using the CBCL (parent report), Children's Depression Inventory and Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale-Revised (child self-reports). Additionally, teachers completed the Shy-Anxious subscale of the Teacher-Child Rating Scale.

Moreover, a number of outcomes around parenting, the family, and the interparental relationship were measured. This included the Acceptance/Rejection subscale of the Child Report of Parenting Behavior Inventory (CRPBI) and the Open Family Communication subscale of the Parent-Adolescent Communication Scale (reported by both child and parent). An observation of mother-child interactions provided a measure of relationship quality. Discipline was measured using the Oregon Social Learning Center measure (parent report) and both mother and child reported on the Inconsistent Discipline subscale of CRPBI. To assess interparental conflict, Children's Perception of Interparental Conflict Scale was used (parent and child report) and mothers also completed a measure relating to the support of the noncustodial father-child relationship.

At the 6-year follow-up assessment, externalising problems were measured using the CBCL (parent report) and the Divorce Adjustment Externalizing scale (child self-report). Internalising problems were also measured by the CBCL (parent report) and the Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale (child self-report). Also, the Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children was used to examine psychological adjustment, diagnosis of mental disorder and drug abuse based on children’s self-report. Additionally, the frequency of alcohol and drug consumption was measured along with number of sexual partners. Competence was measured by the Coatsworth Competence Scale reported by both mother and child. Finally, children’s self-esteem was measured using the Self-Perception Profile of Children (child self-report).

At the 15-year follow-up assessment, externalising and internalising problems were measured using the Diagnostic Interview Schedule IV (child self-report). Additionally, this measure was used for assessing substance-related disorders and the age of onset of regular drinking. Internalising and externalising problems along with substance use problems were assessed by the Adult Self Report (child self-report) and Adult Behaviour Checklist (parent report). Substance conception was measured using Monitoring the Future Scale Report (child self-report). The self-reported Quantity and Frequency of Alcohol and Drugs Scale examined frequency of binge drinking.

Findings

This study identified statistically significant positive impact on a number of child outcomes. This includes internalising and externalising behaviour when examined immediately after the intervention.  

One negative effect was identified, where shy-anxious behaviour as reported by teachers significantly increased in the intervention group (mother only) in comparison to the control group.  The authors explain this result by arguing that it is a by-product of a positive impact of the programme – improving maternal listening skills.  In other words, children in the treatment condition became more open about their feelings and concerns in the presence of teachers, due to the intervention, in contrast with children assigned to the control.

In relation to mediating outcomes, an improvement was observed in mother-child relationship, use of effective disciplines and attending in the intervention group when compared to control group, immediately post-intervention. In the dual component (mother + child) intervention group, the child’s coping and mother’s attending was improved. It was also identified that the programme was more effective for higher risk families.

Similar results in programme outcomes were identified at the 6-month follow up.  The externalising behaviour of children whose mother participated in the intervention groups improved in comparison to those from the control group. However, this was not observed for children’s internalising behaviour.

At the 6-year follow-up, this study identified statistically significant positive impact on a number of child outcomes for the dual intervention (though not for the mother only group).  This includes reduced externalising problems, reduced number of sexual partners, and reduced number of diagnoses of any mental disorder.

At the 15-year follow-up, this study identified statistically significant positive impact on a number of child outcomes.  This includes reduction in the development of internalising problems.

Sandler, I., Wolchik, S., Mazza, G., Gunn, H., Tein, J. Y., Berkel, C., ... & Porter, M. (2019). Randomized effectiveness trial of the New Beginnings Program for divorced families with children and adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 40(3), 247-263.

Available at
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15374416.2018.1540008

Study design and sample

The second study is an RCT. This study involved random assignment of families to an NBP treatment group (n=445) and a control group (n=385). 

This study was conducted in the United States, with a sample of children aged 3-18 years old. The participants were ethnically diverse (59.4% white, 31.4 Hispanic, and 9.2% other ethnicities).

Measures

Internalising and externalising behaviours were measured using the Child Behaviour Checklist (for children aged 6-18) and the Preschool Child Behaviour Checklist (for children aged 3-5) (parent report).  Additionally, children aged 9 or older completed the Brief Problem Monitor and teachers reported on the same measure for younger children (aged 6 and older).

Children’s learning problems were measured using the Teacher-Child Rating Scale (teacher report).

Parents and children completed a number of measures to examine parenting skills (quality of parent-child relationship and discipline). The Family Routines Inventory was used to examine family routines and completed by both parent and child. Involvement was assessed using a measure adapted from Menning (parent and child report). Communication was examined by the Open Communication Subscale of the Parent-Adolescent Communication Subscale (parent and child report). Parent and child completed the Child Monitoring Scale. Acceptance, rejection and consistency of discipline was measured by using the Child Report of Parental Behaviour Inventory (parent and child report). Discipline was measured using the Oregon Discipline Scale (parent report).

Findings

This study identified statistically significant positive impact on a number of child and parent outcomes.

This includes, immediately following the intervention, improvements on parent-reported child internalising problems, externalising problems, and total problems. 

However, some negative effects were observed.  At the post-test assessment, teachers reported more externalising problems, lower task orientation, lower assertive social skills, and lower frustration tolerance among a subgroup of younger children (children 8 and younger) from NBP when compared to the control group.   The study authors, however, suggest that negative effects were mitigated as the 10-month follow up didn’t identify any statistically significant negative effects for children in treatment group.  Moreover, these findings are only observed in the school context (not in the home, where improvements in behaviour are observed), and are only observed with respect to a subgroup of younger children.